Token+Economies

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Token economies will be examined with respect to children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder or ADHD. ADHD affects a person’s ability to focus and concentrate. At times all children find it difficult to sit still and focus, but children with ADHD have "pervasive and developmentally inappropriate difficulties with attention, impulsivity and hyperactivity" (DuPaul et al, 2011, p. 35). The number of children diagnosed with ADHD has increased to almost eight times greater than what it was thirty years ago. =====
 * =====**Causes**=====
 * There is no specific cause of ADHD. Different researchers have identified several important factors, but not one of them is the key determiner of a diagnosis. Each factor identified has also been rebutted by other researchers, so today, it is still unclear as to what the specific cause is or even if there is one overarching cause. Some components identified as possible factors are “genetics, diet, social and environmental factors” (Frank-Briggs, 2011, p. 292).
 * =====**Rates of occurrence**=====
 * According to the Center for Disease Control, as of 2007, 9.5 percent of children in America were diagnosed with ADHD. For boys the percentage is 13.2 percent and for girls it is 5.6 percent. Although, some researchers believe that girls with ADHD often go undiagnosed.


 * =====**Common behaviors associated with topic**=====

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ADHD’s most common symptoms are inattention and hyperactivity as the name suggests, but there are more symptoms and behaviors than that and they vary among children. According to the American Psychiatric Association’s pamphlet on ADHD, some of these children may…=====
 * =====squirm and fidget,=====
 * =====day dream a lot,=====
 * =====have difficulty following instructions,=====
 * =====appear to not listen when being spoken to,=====
 * =====not be able to stay seated,=====
 * =====talk too much/interrupt, or=====
 * =====be easily distracted.=====

**Overview of Intervention**

 * =====**How to do it**=====
 * A token economy is where the teacher must set up a points system where the students can earn points or tokens for good behavior that they can turn in to the teacher for various rewards.
 * If a teacher decides a token economy would be beneficial for a student with ADHD, the teacher must meet with the student and parents, explain the procedure, and find out if they think it would be beneficial for the student. The tokens can be in the forms of fake money, poker chips, bingo chips, etc. The teacher then must determine how what behavior the student must demonstrate to receive the tokens, and if the teacher should be able to take away tokens for undesired behavior. Reinforcements in a token economy can really be anything, but it is very important that the teacher find out what items would be reinforcing for that individual student. It is also very important the teacher have different rewards for the student to pick from so they don't experience satiation. Basically, the students earn tokens for demonstrating the desired behavior, then they can turn their tokens in for different prizes/rewards. If the students want to spend their tokens right away they can get some form of small object, like pencils, but if they wish to save their tokens they could get more expensive things, like more time at recess, or more time on electronics (computer, iPad, etc.).


 * =====**Who Implements:**=====
 * ====No matter what class (general education or special education), it will primarily be the teacher implementing the token economy system. It is their job to produce and reinforce the program to the best of their ability. Usually, the need for help from other professionals (school administrator, paraprofessional, student teacher, other professional, etc.) will not be needed unless the general/special education teacher is experiencing difficulty. For example, if a general education teacher is spending too much of their time creating/implementing the token economy system, they may ask for assistance from a school administrator who can help them in multiple ways (sharing ideas, monitoring, reviewing/collecting data, etc.)====
 * ====**Materials Needed:**====
 * ====The materials needed to implement a token economy system vary and depend on the teacher and/or the class; the only thing needed is a positive reinforcer. All teachers have their own methods and ideas, all of which could potentially be effective within a token economy system. Also, the student behaviors have an effect on the decision; the teacher has to determine which "token" is most likely to reinforce the students and improve the classes undesired behavior(s).====
 * ====**Examples of materials**====

Clemmitt, M. (2012, August 3). Treating ADHD. //CQ Researcher//, //22//, 669-692. Retrieved from http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/
 * =====**Potential Pitfalls:**=====
 * ====1) Time Commitment:====
 * ====In the research found, teachers often said that implementing a token economy took time away from teaching other important lessons. For example, some students may not understand the process when it is first introduced; the teacher may have to take an extra couple days for that alone. They stated that it would be more effective to have another professional involved in the creating and monitoring of the token economy, such as a paraprofessional and would cut the time down tremendously.====
 * ====2) Children manipulating the token economy in distracting ways:====
 * Even though token economies have the intention of evoking positive behaviors, implementing them may also create negative reactions that take away from effective learning. For example, assuming that student's respond to the "token", they may discover the desired behavior needed to receive a "token" and purposely try to perform it as many times as possible in order to receive the most tokens. This may cause them to be distracted and spend more time trying to receive tokens rather than learning the material being taught in class.
 * ====3) Expensive:====
 * Depending on what your "token" is and how often you reinforce, a token economy could be very expensive. For example, if a token was a piece of candy, the teacher may find themselves going to the store to buy new "tokens" multiple times a week. If the token is somewhat expensive, an effective solution could be to more strict when determining an acceptable desired behavior. This would limit the amount of "tokens" given to students thus, save more money.
 * ====4) Consistency:====
 * ====In order for a token to be effective, the person implementing it must be consistent and make sure that they are properly reinforcing the same desired behavior(s) for all students. If not, the students will be confused and not know what behavior(s) you are looking for, causing the token economy to become very ineffective. Also, be sure to present the reinforcement directly after the desired behavior; this will further avoid confusing and let students know what behavior the teacher is looking for.====
 * Bibliography**

DuPaul, G. J., Weyandt, L. L., & Janusis, G. M. (2011). ADHD in the Classroom: Effective Intervention Strategies. // Theory Into Practice //, // 50 //(1), 35-42.

Frank-Briggs, A. (2011). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Journal Of Pediatric Neurology, 9(3), 291-298

Higgins, J. W., Williams, R. L., & McLaughlin, T. F. (2001). The effects of a token economy employing instructional consequences for a third-grade student with learning disabilities: A data-based case study. Education and Treatment of Children, 24(1), 99-106.

Nelson, K. G. (2010). Presence of a token economy. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 37(1), 49-56.

Boniecki, Kurt A., and Stacy Moore. "Breaking the Silence: Using a Token Economy to Reinforce Classroom Participation." //Teaching of Psychology// 30.3 (2003): 224-27. Print.

Martin, Garry, and Joseph Pear. //Behavior Modification: What It Is and How to Do It//. Boston: Pearson, 2010. Print.